Higher intakes of dietary caffeine are associated with 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency A cross-sectional study from the NHANES

Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels remain a challenge worldwide. While some in vitro studies show a caffeine-induced decrease in vitamin D receptor expression, there is a paucity of research to define the extent of caffeine intake on 25(OH)D levels. Therefore, we aimed to associate dietary caffeine intake with 25(OH)D deficiency through a recognized dataset. Using data collected from the 2005-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 25(OH)D levels and dietary caffeine intake were extracted from 13134 individuals (30-47 years, interquartile range). We used one-way ANOVA and chi-square tests for quantitative and qualitative variables, respectively, and performed multivariate logistic regression for four models to assess the odds ratio (OR) of 25(OH)D deficiency (<20 ng/ml or <50 nmol/L) based on quartiles of dietary caffeine intake. Both crude and multivariable models detected higher OR for 25(OH)D deficiency according to the highest intakes of caffeine (15.8 +/- 9.5, 51.9 +/- 11.9, and 177 +/- 156 mg/d) when compared to the reference category (2.19 +/- 1.04 mg/d), in which the OR in the highest category of caffeine intake was 1.24 (95% CI: 1.12 to 1.37) and 1.48 (95% CI: 1.16 to 1.78) for the crude model and the most complete multivariable analysis (adjustment for age, sex, race, body mass index, smoking, physical activity, occupation, energy intake, protein intake, and fat intake), respectively. In conclusion, higher dietary intakes of caffeine were associated with 25(OH)D deficiency in a representative sample of the American population, but further investigation is warranted to determine causation.