Evaluating sand and clay models: do rheological differences matter?

Dry sand and wet clay are the most frequently used materials for physical modeling of brittle deformation. We present a series of experiments that shows when the two materials can be used interchangeably, document the differences in deformation patterns and discuss how best to evaluate and apply results of physical models. Extension and shortening produce similar large-scale deformation patterns in dry sand and wet clay models, indicating that the two materials can be used interchangeably for analysis of gross deformation geometries. There are subtle deformation features that are significantly different: (1) fault propagation and fault linkage; (2) fault width, spacing and displacement; (3) extent of deformation zone; and (4) amount of folding vs. faulting. These differences are primarily due to the lower cohesion of sand and its larger grain size. If these features are of interest, the best practice would be to repeat the experiments with more than one material to ensure that rheological differences are not biasing results. Dry sand and wet clay produce very different results in inversion models; almost all faults are reactivated in wet clay, and few, if any, are significantly reactivated in sand models. Fault reactivation is attributed to high fluid pressure along the fault zone in the wet clay, a situation that may be analogous to many rocks. Sand inversion models may be best applied to areas where most faults experience little to no reactivation, while clay models best fit areas where most pre-existing normal faults are reactivated. (C) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.