Adsorptive removal of metformin on specially designed algae-lignocellulosic biochar mix and techno-economic feasibility assessment

Batch sorption of metformin hydrochloride (MET) onto a specially designed biochar mix consisting of both macro (MAC) and micro (MIC) algae, rice husk and pine sawdust was conducted. Pyrolysis of both MAC and MIC algae mixture was done followed by chemical activation with hydrogen-peroxide. Additionally, sorption of MET under the influence of pH was separately investigated. Batch studies of isotherms were well described by Freundlich model with high non-linearity and Freundlich exponent values ranged anywhere from 0.12 to 1.54. Heterogeneity of MET adsorption to the bonding sites was attributed to the surface functional groups of the modified biochar. Amongst the four biochars, the activated macroalgae biochar (MACAC) and microalgae biochar (MICAC) depicted favourable adsorption of MET with maximum adsorption at pH 7. Up to 76% of MET removal from the environment was obatained using the MACAC biochar. Scanning electron micrographs coupled with energy dispersive X-ray, as well as elemental analyses confirmed formation of oxygen containing surface functional groups due to activation strengthening chemisorption as the main sorption mechanism. Further, Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy and other surface functional group analyses along with Zeta potential measurements reinforced our proposed sorption mechanism. Lowest zeta potential observed at pH 7 enhanced the electrostatic force of attraction for both the biochars. Negative zeta potential value of the biochars under different pH indicated potential of the biochars to adsorb other positively charged contaminants. From a technoeconomic perspective, capital expenditure cost is not readily available, however, it is envisaged that production of pyrolyzed biochar from algal biomass could make the process economically attractive especially when the biochar could be utilised for high-end applications.