Harsh, firm, and permissive parenting in low-income families - Relations to children's academic achievement and behavioral adjustment

Parents' (primarily mothers) reports of their child-rearing expectations and intentions were measured for 184 low-income urban families when children were in the third and fifth grades. Reports of harsh, firm, and permissive parenting strategies were stable over time. Associations between concurrent parenting strategies and children's adjustment also were evident. Endorsements of harsh parenting strategies were associated with teachers reporting poorer child adjustment at school; firm-responsive parenting strategies were related to lower parent-reported behavior problems in the home. Harsh parenting was negatively associated with children's academic achievement as measured by the lowa Test of Basic Skills during fifth grade. Reports of parental permissiveness were not associated with measures of child adjustment. Reported parenting in third grade was associated with greater child responsibility during fifth grade. There was little evidence that children's prior adjustment was related to parenting reports obtained later.