Lessons learned from invasive plant control experiments: a systematic review and meta-analysis

1. Invasive plants can reduce biodiversity, alter ecosystem functions and have considerable economic impacts. Invasive plant control is therefore the focus of restoration research in invader-dominated ecosystems. Increasing the success of restoration practice requires analysis and synthesis of research findings and assessment of how experiments can be improved. 2. In a systematic review and meta-analysis of invasive plant control research papers, we asked: (i) what control efforts have been most successful; and (ii) what invasive plant control research best translates into successful restoration application? 3. The literature evaluated typically described experiments that were limited in scope. Most plot sizes were small (< 1 m(2)), time frames were brief (51% evaluated control for one growing season or less) and few species and ecosystems (predominantly grasslands) were studied throughout much of the literature. The scale at which most experiments were conducted potentially limits relevance to the large scales at which restorations typically occur. 4. Most studies focused on invasive species removal and lacked an evaluation of native revegetation following removal. Few studies (33%) included active revegetation even though native species propagule limitation was common. Restoration success was frequently complicated by re-invasion or establishment of a novel invader. 5. Few studies (29%) evaluated the costs of invasive species control. Additionally, control sometimes had undesirable effects, including negative impacts to native species. 6. Synthesis and applications. Despite a sizeable literature on invasive plant control experiments, many large-scale invasive plant management efforts have had only moderate restoration success. We identified several limitations to successful invasive species control including: minimal focus on revegetation with natives after invasive removal, limited spatial and temporal scope of invasive plant control research, and incomplete evaluation of costs and benefits associated with invasive species management actions. We suggest that information needed to inform invasive plant management can be better provided if researchers specifically address these limitations. Many limitations can be addressed by involving managers in research, particularly through adaptive management.