Hydrogeochemistry and health hazards of fluoride-enriched groundwater in the Tarim Basin, China

Fluoride (F) enrichment reduces the availability of groundwater resources in the arid region, and it is thus important to investigate the hydrogeochemistry and health hazards of fluoride-enriched groundwater. Seventy-two groundwater samples (20 unconfined samples from the piedmont plain, 22 unconfined samples and 30 shallow confined samples from the alluvial plain) were collected in the Tarim Basin of China to illustrate the geochemical processes driving the F enrichment and the incidence of dental fluorosis. The patterns of average ions contents in groundwater are Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ and SO42 > Cl > HCO3 > NO3 > F. The highest F concentration (average 2.16 mg/L) is observed in unconfined groundwater in the alluvial plain, while the lowest (average 0.63 mg/L) is recorded in unconfined groundwater in the piedmont plain. Approximately 5.0% of unconfined groundwater in the piedmont plain, 90.9% of unconfined groundwater and 33.3% of shallow confined groundwater in the alluvial plain contain F concentrations exceeding 1.0 mg/L (Chinese drinking water standard). Mineral dissolution, cation exchange, and evaporation play a significant role in the formation of solutes in groundwater. High-F- groundwater is mostly associated with SO4 center dot Cl-Na center dot Ca, SO4 center dot Cl-Na center dot Mg, and SO4 center dot Cl-Na types water. Thermodynamic simulations reveal that the dissolution of F-bearing minerals (e.g., fluorite) significantly controls the F contents in groundwater. High concentrations of F are closely related to high HCO3-, high Na+, high salinity, cation exchange, and evaporation. This demonstrates that high F concentrations are caused by the increase in fluorite solubility due to high ionic strength, Ca2+ consumption and the desorption of F from solid surfaces under alkaline conditions. Mixing with the upper unconfined groundwater plays a vital role in the enrichment of F in shallow confined groundwater in the alluvial plain. The health risk assessment based on Dean's classification indicates that the percentage prevalence of fluorosis for boys aged 6 to 18 is 15.5% for Yecheng (YC), 18.4% for Zepu (ZP), 33.3% for Shache (SC), 29.8% for Maigaiti (MG), and 44.9% for Bachu (BC), while that for girls of the same age is 14.3% for YC, 24.3% for ZP, 42.2% for SC, 41.4% for MG, and 45.3% for BC. For male and female adults aged between 19 and 68, the percentage prevalence of fluorosis is: YC (11.5%, 12.0%), ZP (18.3%, 20.0%), SC (35.4%, 35.0%), MG (32.5%, 39.7%), and BC (42.4%, 44.3%). It is obvious that younger generation, especially girls, suffers from more severe dental fluorosis. This study has implications for the effective management of high-F- groundwater in arid regions.