Morphological, physiological, and secondary metabolic responses of Taraxacum officinale to salt stress

Salt stress has a major effect on growth and secondary metabolism in medicinal plants, however, the effect of salt stress on Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg. is still scarce. In this study, we evaluated the effects of salt stress on the physiology, morphology, phenolic acid accumulation, and expression of genes involved in phenolic acid biosynthesis in T. officinale. We found that plants grew well at 1 g kg(-1) NaCl, and the state of photosystem ? (PS?) and the organization of the chloroplasts at 0.5 g kg(-1) NaCl showed no significant differences compared with the control. However, 2 g kg(-1) and 4 g kg(-1) NaCl inhibited growth and accelerated leaf senescence. At 4 g kg(-1) NaCl, the fresh and dry weights decreased to 28% and 42% of the control, while chlorosis and necrosis were observed on the leaves. Furthermore, up-regulation of the expression of ToC3 ' H corresponded with an increase in the levels of caffeoylquinic acids (chlorogenic acid and isochlorogenic acid A) at NaCl concentration <= 1 g kg(-1). Expressions of four phenolic acid biosynthesis genes, ToC4H, To4CL, ToHCT, and ToHQT, were down-regulated with increasing NaCl concentrations, consistent with the observed decreases in caftaric and cichoric acids. In summary, cultivation of T. officinale under mild salt stress (NaCl <= 1 g kg(-1)) is feasible and facilitates the accumulation of caffeoylquinic acids; thus this species may be recommended for saline soils.