A thermodynamic description of active transport

We present a solution to problems that were raised in the 1960s: How can the vectorial ion flux couple to the scalar energy of the reaction of ATP to ADP and P, to give active transport of the ion; i.e. transport against its chemical potential? And, is it possible, on thermodynamic grounds to obtain non-linear flux force relations for this transport? Using non-equilibrium thermodynamics (NET) on the stochastic (mesoscopic) level, we explain how the second law of thermodynamics gives a basis for the description of active transport of Ca2+ by the Ca-ATPase. Coupling takes place at the surface, because the symmetry of the fluxes changes here. The theory gives the energy dissipated as heat during transport and reaction. Experiments are defined to determine coupling coefficients. We propose that the coefficients for coupling between chemical reaction, ion flux and heat flux are named thermogenesis coefficients. They are all probably significant. We discuss that the complete set of coefficients can explain slippage in molecular pumps as well as thermogenesis that is triggered by a temperature jump.