Liquid-Liquid Phase Transition Drives Intra-chloroplast Cargo Sorting

In eukaryotic cells, organelle biogenesis is pivotal for cellular function and cell survival. Chloroplasts are unique organelles with a complex internal membrane network. The mechanisms of the migration of imported nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins across the crowded stroma to thylakoid membranes are less understood. Here, we identified two Arabidopsis ankyrin-repeat proteins, STT1 and STT2, that specifically mediate sorting of chloroplast twin arginine translocation (cpTat) pathway proteins to thylakoid membranes. STT1 and STT2 form a unique heterodimer through interaction of their C-terminal ankyrin domains. Binding of cpTat substrate by N-terminal intrinsically disordered regions of STT complex induces liquid-liquid phase separation. The multivalent nature of STT oligomer is critical for phase separation. STT-Hcf106 interactions reverse phase separation and facilitate cargo targeting and translocation across thylakoid membranes. Thus, the formation of phase-separated droplets emerges as a novel mechanism of intra-chloroplast cargo sorting. Our findings highlight a conserved mechanism of phase separation in regulating organelle biogenesis.