Effects of proprioceptive feedback and environmental characteristics on spatial learning in virtual environments

The effect of proprioceptive information and environmental characteristics on spatial learning was investigated when participants repeatedly navigated complex three-dimensional virtual mazes. Proprioceptive information, provided by viewing the mazes using a head-mounted display, was found to have little effect. The primary environmental characteristics were layout orthogonality (using paths that intersected at either oblique or 90degrees angles), lines of sight (controlled using computer-generated "fog"), a visually defined perimeter and global landmarks. Participants travelled less far in orthogonal than oblique environments, even when fog was used to make the distance that participants could see equivalent. The removal of fog caused a further, substantial reduction in the distance participants travelled, indicating the importance of extended lines of sight, as predicted by the architectural theory of space syntax. Global landmarks promoted a similar rate of spatial learning to a visual perimeter. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.