Towards Depth-Resolved Optical Imaging of Cardiac Electrical Activity

The spatiotemporal dynamics of arrhythmias are likely to be complex three-dimensional phenomena. Yet, the lack of high-resolution three-dimensional imaging techniques, both in the clinic and the experimental lab, limits our ability to better understand the mechanisms of such arrhythmias. Optical mapping using voltage-sensitive dyes is a widely used tool in experimental electrophysiology. It has been known for decades that even in its most basic application, epi-fluorescence, the optical signal contains information from within a certain intramural volume. Understanding of this fundamental property of optical signals has paved the way towards novel three-dimensional optical imaging techniques. Here, we review our current understanding of the three-dimensional nature of optical signals; how penetration depths of cardiac optical imaging can be improved by using novel imaging modalities and finally, we highlight new techniques inspired from optical tomography and aiming at full depth-resolved optical mapping of cardiac electrical activity.