Review of endocrine disruptors on male and female reproductive systems

Endocrine disruptors (EDs) interfere with different hormonal and metabolic processes and disrupt the devel-opment of organs and tissues, as well as the reproductive system. In toxicology research, various animal models have been utilized to compare and characterize the effects of EDs. We reviewed studies assessing the effect of ED exposure in humans, zebrafish, and mouse models and the adverse effects of EDs on male and female repro-ductive systems. This review outlines the distinctive morphological characteristics, as well as gene expression, factors, and mechanisms that are known to occur in response to EDs. In each animal model, disturbances in the reproductive system were associated with certain factors of apoptosis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, estrogen receptor pathway-induced meiotic disruption, and steroidogenesis. The effects of bisphenol A, phtha-late, and 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol have been investigated in animal models, each providing supporting outcomes and elaborating the key regulators of male and female reproductive systems.