Predisposed obesity and long-term metabolic diseases from maternal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) - A review of its effect and potential mechanisms

Ambient air pollution is one of the most serious public health problems over the last decade. It causes about 4.2 million deaths worldwide each year, and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is one of the major components of air pollution. Many chronic non-communicable diseases may originate from the early-life environment that alters the development of offspring. Pregnancy and lactation are plastic "window periods " for offspring metabolism, during which PM2.5 exposure is associated with long-term metabolic dysfunction in offspring. In this review, we summarized the scientific evidence from both epidemiological and toxicological studies, which suggest that perinatal exposure to PM2.5 causes obesity and metabolic diseases in progeny, including hypertension, car-diometabolic dysfunction, diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Therefore, prevention stra-tegies are needed to inform government policies and clinical counseling to reduce maternal exposure and its associated health hazards, and ultimately improve the quality of the newborn population.