Multi-hazards, displaced people's vulnerability and resettlement: Post-earthquake experiences from Rasuwa district in Nepal and their connections to policy loopholes and reconstruction practices

In Nepal, where extreme seismic and severe weather events are frequent, understanding the consequences of different types of hazards (geological, meteorological and human-made) and their impact on people's vulnerability in the aftermath of the 2015 Mw7.8 Gorkha, Nepal earthquake, is crucial for enhanced formulation of policies and reconstruction practices. This paper aims to comprehend localized multi-hazard risks, the interaction between hazards and seasonality which may occur simultaneously, cascadingly and cumulatively, and local peoples' knowledge, experiences and perceptions to explore the effectiveness of resettlement and other reconstruction efforts. To fulfill this objective, a study was conducted in 2018 in Rasuwa, Nuwakot and Kathmandu district comprising 60 semi-structured interviews, three focus group discussions, and two photo-elicitation workshops. Participants included scientists, government officials, humanitarians, and displaced individuals at their original locations or in displacement camps. Findings show that interactions between hazards are not well recognized at policy level, as the geo-hazard assessment highlighted loopholes in its methodology as well as a lack of precision. Hence, interactions between hazards have not been sufficiently considered in the post-earthquake reconstruction process and need to be addressed by the National Reconstruction Authority. Analysis demonstrates that no clear relocation plan for displaced people exists, and that livelihood opportunities in new re-settlement areas receive no attention. Giving communities the opportunity to discuss localized multihazard risks with experts, so vulnerabilities, resilience capacity and risk tolerance of individuals and society can be heard and understood, is felt necessary. Moreover, people with limited resources will be more vulnerable, as they are not able to make informed decisions about suitable places for reconstruction, or to evaluate land use options or seasonal living arrangements. Two policy recommendations are proposed: 1) disaster risk-informed development planning in Nepal should include multi-hazard risk assessments as part of disaster risk management policies, and 2) resettlement policies require reform.