Micro- and nanoplastics in the environment: Occurrence, detection, characterization and toxicity-A critical review

The discovery of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) has initiated additional challenges and research opportunities for the scientific community owing to their unique characteristics such as hydrophobicity, surface charges, longer molecular chain arrangement, higher specific surface area, variety of size, shape, color, and functional groups. Further, their presences not only cause to bioaccumulation in the environment but also trigger to pose acute and chronic toxicity in various animals and marine species. The bioaccumulation of MPs and NPs is eventually harming humans' health because of the ingestion of seafood and utilization of untreated drinking water. Therefore, the present review is an attempt to emphasize the recent research developments on the occurrence, sampling, pretreatment, detection, characterization and toxicity of MPs and NPs in the environment. Further, the health issues of MPs and NPs on human beings have been deliberated. Additionally, potential mitigation measures to control this issue are also scrutinized. Regarding this, the published reports have been thoroughly reviewed and critically discussed to acquire the knowledge gaps and key points for future research to combat against MPs and NPs pollution.