Capitalist development in hostile conjunctures: War, dispossession, and class formation in Turkey

This article analyses how periods of geopolitical conflict and violence have affected the development of capitalism and class formation in Turkey. We argue that all major episodes of conflict, violence and war-from forced displacement and ethnic cleansing of the non-Muslims in the late 19th and the early 20th century, to Kurdish secessionist warfare in the 1990s and the Syrian Civil War-have become major historical turning points in the development of historical capitalism in Turkey. These "hostile conjunctures" transformed capitalism through their direct and indirect effects on dispossession, class formation, and capital accumulation. Although each of these conflicts produced a violent dispossession process, none of them resembled the rural dispossession process in England. To make sense of Turkey's experience, we turn our attention to what we call the "Castilian/Spanish road," and what Lenin called the "Junker/Prussian road" and the "farmers/American road." Our analysis shows that these differential paths of dispossession, class formation, and capital accumulation have produced highly variegated rather than uniform outcomes. We conclude that we are living in a new "hostile conjuncture," which is pregnant to a major structural crisis and is generating the preconditions of another historical transformation in the way capitalism operates.