Microvascular Complications of Diabetes: Nephropathy, Retinopathy, and Maculopathy

Nephropathy, retinopathy and macular edema constitute serious microvascular complications in diabetes mellitus. In contrast to macrovascular changes, these complications are closely linked with the quality of metabolic control, and often occur together. Survival prognosis is very poor for patients with diabetes and this fully manifested microvascular damage profile. The fifth and final part of the series on microangiopathy will cover the current state of knowledge in diagnosis and treatment for nephropathy, retinopathy and macular oedema in diabetes mellitus. This will include the risk factors, prognosis and therapy for diabetic nephropathy, including blood glucose and blood glucose control as well as lipid metabolism. Treatment options for end-stage renal deficiency such as haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, and kidney transplantation will also be given consideration. Treatment options for diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema will also be presented; these include laser photocoagulation, intra-vitreal and systemic options, and surgical therapy.