When theories don't add up: Disentangling the manipulatives debate

The use of manipulatives in the classroom has been advocated for decades. However the theoretical and empirical support for this practice is mixed. Some researchers suggest that inanipulatives facilitate learning by (a) providing an additional channelfor conveying information, (b) activating real-world knowledge, and/or (c) improving memory through physical action. However there are at least two reasons to question the efficacy of manipulative use. First, manipulatives might lead students to focus on having fun at the expense of deep learning. Second, manipulatives might make learning more difficult because they require dual representation. Although these two criticisms are disparate in terms of their under- lying rationale, both converge on the idea that teachers should reduce their use of manipulatives that are highlyfamiliar andlor perceptually interesting. More generally, the manipulatives debate highlights the need for teachers and researchers to work together to evaluate the costs and benefits of various classroom practices.