3D radiative transfer modeling of structurally complex forest canopies through a lightweight boundary-based description of leaf clusters

Three-dimensional (3D) radiative transfer simulations are critical for studying the radiometric properties of canopies. Efficient and easy-to-use 3D radiative transfer models are required by remote sensing inversion and many validation applications. Extensive efforts have been made to improve the computational effi-ciency, accuracy, and useability of 3D radiative transfer models. This study focuses on the abstraction of canopies for 3D radiative transfer simulations by proposing a lightweight boundary-based description of leaf clusters (B-cluster) to ease the creation of 3D scenes while keeping the simulation as accurate as possible. B -cluster partitions a tree crown into sub-crown leaf clusters and abstracts each of them into a turbid medium enclosed by a complex and tight boundary, while terrain and branches are described with precise mesh surfaces. The radiative transfer simulation within B-cluster has been developed based on an efficient Monte Carlo path-tracing algorithm and implemented in the LargE-Scale remote sensing data and image Simulation framework (LESS) model by considering the presence of both turbid medium and surface scattering. The performance of the model was assessed by comparing with original LESS version, which describes all landscape elements with mesh surfaces (here called M-surface approach), and with a uniform voxel-based approach (U-voxel) in terms of the multiangle bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) as well as with pixel -wise images. Results show that B-cluster is highly consistent with M-surface in abstract canopies (mean normalized absolute BRF differences delta) < 2%) and in realistic forest stand (delta) < 5% at 5-m resolution) with considerably reduced requirements for computational memory. Compared with U-voxel, B-cluster is also more robust and better at describing canopy structures with different levels of detail. B-cluster enables to quickly construct accurate 3D scenes with reduced requirements of computational resources. It is also a unified and scale-adaptive approach that can describe crowns as simple as geometric primitives and as complex as explicitly described meshes. The newly proposed approach has been released in new LESS ver-sions at http://lessrt.org/.