Health and hygiene in the modern lead and zinc industry

The potential risks of working with lead have been recognised for centuries, but it is only with the development of sensitive measuring techniques in relatively recent years that it has been possible to establish effective approaches for the monitoring and control of lead exposure. This paper examines the principal control measures employed today - lead in air and lead in blood - and reviews the evolution of numerical standards, with particular reference to the latest understanding of health effects. In addition to lead, a large number of other metals are commonly encountered when producing lead and zinc - both primary and secondary - and the health effects of many of these are discussed. Modem hygiene practices and technologies, which have proved successful in reducing worker exposures, are reviewed. The paper concludes with a look at how exposure standards are likely to change in the near to medium future.