Farmers' maladaptation: Eroding sustainable development, rebounding and shifting vulnerability in smallholder agriculture system

Adaptation has become crucial in developing economies due to climate change impact, especially on agriculture, which is the backbone of many economies and the main source of livelihoods and food security. Some adaptation strategies applied in the context of developing countries, however, produce maladaptive outcomes, which are usually ignored in the planning phase of adaptation policies and programmes. This mixed methods study therefore explores adaptation strategies and the associated maladaptation outcomes of smallholder farmers in rural Ghana. The study administered questionnaire survey to 378 farmers and 41 key informants were interviewed. The major adaptation strategies of farmers included crop and livelihood diversification, agrochemicals application, and reduction in the number and size of meals. However, farmers' adaptation strategies result in maladaptation outcomes through the release of greenhouse gases, environmental degradation, and contamination of water bodies as well as resource conflicts and increasing pressure on lands, among others, which affect their capacity to respond to future climate change. Adaptation policy makers and development practitioners should prioritize the minimization of maladaptation outcomes through intensive review and modification of programmes prior to their implementation and extensive education on best practices among smallholder farmers.