Rethinking the Middle to Later Stone Age transition in southern Africa-A perspective from the highveld of Eswatini

The MSA/LSA transition is a major shift in the African archaeological record, but questions on its beginning remain debated. In southern Africa, most sites suggest an origin of LSA technology after about 30.000 years BP. The single exception is Border Cave situated at the border between South Africa and Eswatini, with surprisingly old dates of-43.000 BP associated with an L SA-like bipolar quartz assemblage. While many researchers now consider Border Cave to represent the origin of the LSA in southern Africa, these findings lack proper contextualization with regional lithic and chronometric data. Here we pursue the question whether Border Cave provides firm evidence for the source of LSA technology that later spread to the rest of southern Africa. To test between different hypotheses, we provide new chronometric and lithic data from the site of Sibebe, situated in the highveld of Eswatini only 100 km distant to Border Cave, and contextualize these results with nearby localities. Eswatini represents an ideal study area as it features many excavated sites but remains heavily understudied, rarely appearing in comparative MSA/LSA research. Our analyses at Sibebe identify two distinct groups of MSA lithic assemblages dated to between 43.000 and 27.000 cal BP by C14, overlain by a late Holocene LSA industry. The latest MSA expression at Sibebe features finely shaped unifacial and bifacial points without trends towards LSA technology. A comparative review of sites in Eswatini, South Africa, and Mozambique confirms similar MSA industries post-dating 30.000 BP but finds no evidence for LSA technologies before-27.000 BP. These findings suggest that Border Cave cannot mark the origin of the much later LSA in southern Africa, but rather signifies an early set of locally specific behavioral innovations that appeared and disappeared again. These findings have important implications for the spread of new technologies and our understanding of cultural evolutionary trajectories in southern Africa and beyond. (C) 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.