Concentrations and potential health risks of strontium in drinking water from Xi'an, Northwest China

Information about the concentrations of strontium (Sr(II)) in drinking water in China and the corresponding health risks to Chinese residents is lacking. This study investigated Sr(II) in drinking water through a monthly sampling campaign in twelve locations in Xi'an, Northwest China. A health risk assessment for different age groups and exposure pathways were carried out by Monte Carlo simulation. The results show Sr(II) concentrations of 0.06-1.69 mg/L in all drinking water samples, which exceeded the minimum reporting level (MRL) of 0.3 mu g/L. Also, one sample exceeded the health reference level (HRL) of 1500 mu g/L. Higher Sr(II) levels were recorded in groundwater supply zones and springs, and more potential changes in Sr(II) occurred in distribution pipes transporting groundwater. The non-carcinogenic risk associated with Sr(II) exposure via drinking water was less than 1, indicating no significant health risk to the residents of Xi'an. As the first attempt to provide information on the health risks of Sr(II) in drinking water in China, findings from this study can be useful for the development of potential strategies for risk control and management.