Roles of the ER-α36-EGFR/HER2 positive regulatory loops in tamoxifen resistance

Tamoxifen provided a successful treatment for ER-positive breast cancer for the past four decades. However, most breast tumors are eventually resistant to tamoxifen therapy. Extensive researches were conducted to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in tamoxifen resistance, and have revealed that multiple signaling molecules and pathways such as EGFR and HER2 are involved in tamoxifen resistance. Currently, the mechanisms by which tamoxifen sensitive breast cancer cells acquire these signaling pathways and develop tamoxifen resistance have not been elucidated. The identification of ER-alpha 36, a variant of ER-alpha, that is able to mediate agonist activity of tamoxifen provided great insights into the underlying mechanisms of tamoxifen resistance. In this review, we will discuss the biological function and the possible underlying mechanisms of ER-alpha 36 in tamoxifen resistance and specifically illustrate a novel cross-talk mechanism; positive regulatory loops between the ER-alpha 36 and EGFR/HER2 in tamoxifen resistance. The function and the underlying mechanisms of ER-alpha 36 in tamoxifen resistance of the breast cancer stem/progenitor cells will also be discussed. Finally, we will postulate a novel approach to restore tamoxifen sensitivity in tamoxifen resistant breast cancer cells. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.