Genetic improvement of non-GMO wine yeasts: Strategies, advantages and safety

Wine yeasts are critical in the winemaking process as they affect several aspects; e.g., aroma composition or fermentation. Thus wine companies and researchers have attempted to enhance these aspects by different approaches, including genetic modification. However, this powerful technique has been disused given consumers' rejection of GMOs. In this review we summarise several aspects of lack of acceptability of genetically modified wine yeasts, which range from legal facets to ecological and safety risks. Finally, we review the alternative techniques developed and frequently used in recent years to enhance wine yeast without producing GMOs, such as adaptive evolution or artificial hybridisation.