Sustainable thermal-based desalination with low-cost energy resources and low-carbon footprints

The cost of desalination is mainly based on the energy cost since the process is very energy-intensive. Previous reviews have considered individual topics such as renewable energy sources, membrane materials, and the energy-environment nexus. However, there are few thermal-based desalination studies for systems using renewable energy resources and waste heat that give low-carbon footprints. This paper reviews the use of renewable energy resources and waste heat for desalination with a particular interest in analyzing the energy efficiency and cost. Cost-effective roadmaps are presented for thermal-based desalination plants with energy storage for renewable energy, a heat pump for low-grade waste heat, and an integrated energy system for various energy sources. This paper summarizes integrated system designs and energy storage materials for desalination for renewable energy. Various heat pump systems are evaluated to improve low-grade waste heat utilization. Recent developments in using multiple energy resources for desalination, such as energy internet systems, integrated energy utilization systems, and coastal multi-source multi-load energy systems, are also reviewed. Finally, this review presents a guideline for reducing energy costs and carbon dioxide emissions in the thermalbased desalination industry.