Chloroform in indoor air and wastewater: The role of residential washing machines

A residential washing machine was studied in order to determine the extent of chloroform formation following the application of a laundry bleach containing sodium hypochlorite. A dynamic model was also developed to estimate chloroform formation, mass transfer, and gaseous emissions during a typical wash cycle. A series of 22 experiments was completed to determine model parameters, including chemical reaction and mass transfer rate coefficients, as well as headspace air exchange rates. Three additional experiments were completed to evaluate model performance. Experimental and model results suggest that washing machine environments are very conducive to chloroform formation, with chloroform levels frequently exceeding 1 mg/L in washwater. Chloroform stripping efficiencies were observed to be greater than those previously reported for ethanol, but less than those reported for radon. Mass emissions of chloroform to indoor air during a ten-minute wash cycle were predicted to be between 5.3 and 9.8 mg. On a unit activity basis, chloroform emissions associated with hypochlorite-containing bleach addition to washing machines far exceeded emissions from showers. Each source was estimated to emit similar quantities of chloroform on an annual basis. Finally, it was estimated that the use of hypochlorite-containing laundry bleaches may contribute a significant fraction of chloroform mass loadings to municipal wastewater.