Associations of Depression and Anxiety with Stigma in a Sample of Patients in Saudi Arabia Who Recovered from COVID-19

Purpose: The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak combined with social distancing, isolation, and movement restrictions has had a profound impact on individuals' physical and psychological well-being. The aim of this study was to examine the associations of depression and anxiety with feelings of stigma among patients in Saudi Arabia who have recovered from COVID-19. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted between July and December 2020. Trained healthcare providers contacted and interviewed participants by phone. Depression, anxiety, and stigma were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) questionnaire, and the Explanatory Model Interview Catalogue stigma scale (EMIC). Data on sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidities, and family history of mental illness were also collected. Multiple linear regression models were performed to explore factors associated with depression and anxiety. Results: A total of 174 adult participants (>= 18 years old) who had recently recovered from COVID-19 were interviewed. The mean PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores were 7.53 (+/- 5.04) and 3.77 (+/- 4.47), respectively. About 68% of the participants had at least mild depression (PHQ-9 score of 5-9), whereas only 29.89% had at least mild anxiety (GAD-7 score of 5-9) during their infections with COVID-19. Multiple linear regression showed that females were more vulnerable to depression and anxiety disorders than their male counterparts were (beta=3.071 and beta=1.86, respectively). Notably, participants' stigma scores were significantly associated with higher scores on depression and anxiety. Conclusion: These findings highlight the negative consequences of COVID-19 infection on the mental health of recovered patients. Therefore, considerable attention from local and international health authorities is needed to improve the mental well-being of recovered COVID-19 patients.