Has the inverted-U theory of stress and job performance had a fair test?

Even though researchers have been exploring the relation between stress and job performance for nearly a century, there remains controversy about whether the relation is best characterized as a negative linear relation, a positive linear relation, or as an inverted-U. The inverted-U theory has a great deal of intuitive appeal, yet research results weigh in favor of the negative linear relation. We reviewed studies performed over the past 25 years on the stress-performance relation. The results of our review identified three primary sets of problems with prior research: neglect of the understressed condition, negative connotation of stress, and contextual range restriction. All but one of the studies in our review were found to have at least one of these problems. Based on these results, we make suggestions for refinements in future research to provide a fair test of the inverted-U theory.