THE ADAPTIVE AND STRATEGIC USE OF MEMORY BY OLDER ADULTS: EVALUATIVE PROCESSING AND VALUE-DIRECTED REMEMBERING

Neisser (1982) wrote that cognitive psychology needs to address the "important" question related to memory, leading to a cognitive revolution that generated great debate as to what were the important questions regarding memory, and the methodology that would be needed to answer these questions. Twenty-five years since Neisser has stated this claim, research in cognitive aging might be faced with a similar challenge. Research in cognitive aging can tell us a great deal about memory impairments, but we also need to be aware of how older adults strategically use memory in efficient ways in light of impairments. Older adults may feel the need to focus on the important things to remember, given a long life span of encountering information, and the knowledge that life, as well as memory resources, is limited (Carstensen, 2006). Thus, Neisser's research perspective is also somewhat related to how older adults begin to view their memory, by identifying what is important and focusing on these aspects. Although value can take various forms, and be assigned both objectively and subjectively, it may be useful to draw on the diamond-water paradox that was presented earlier in the context of Adam Smith's objective or intrinsic theory of value. It may be the case that while younger adults can focus on detailed memory of many events (perceived as high value but not always functional information, akin to a diamond), older adults focus on more functional, gist-based, and perhaps more practical and positive information (what they feel is necessary for a sustainable existence and enjoyable survival, much like water). A functional approach to how older adults direct resources to certain kinds and types of information, in relation to value and strategic and selective control theory, will likely be a fruitful manner to study age-related change across the life span in order to understand the impairments, biases and benefits that accompany memory performance in old age. Although this chapter presents a somewhat (overly?) optimistic outlook regarding how older adults can efficiently use memory in old age, these arguments are made in response to the obvious memory impairments that older adults face. Decades of research have shown numerous types of specific deficits and disproportionate impairments in a variety of memory tasks, both naturalistic and laboratory-based, most of which are not ameliorated by training strategies. This might be one of the most universal findings in cognitive aging-but this story needs to be interpreted in a framework that emphasizes life span development. Although it does not come as a surprise that at the age of 60 years most of us cannot run as fast as we could at the age of 16 years, changes in certain kinds or speed of memory performance need to be interpreted in the context of how they can influence, not simply impair, the use of memory in old age. The present chapter emphasizes that what is critical is the adaptive nature of human memory, and how memory can function in light of the value placed on the information. Given that the adult life span has increased significantly over the past few decades, memory must adapt to cope with living longer. Carstensen and Charles (2002) argue that even good news (living longer) is taken in a somewhat negative tone (poorer memory and cognitive function)-a perspective that is often taken by younger but not older adults. What is important to study is how older adults adaptively cope with longer life span, and how value plays a critical role in maximizing memory performance, and well-being in general. The present arguments suggest that as we get older we start to use our memory in different ways, focusing on what we deem important in light of knowing that we cannot remember everything (or in many situations, most things). This does not just start at the age of 65 years, as many of us need to prioritize and effortfully direct attention to PIN numbers, passwords, and learning new names, even at the "young" age of 30 years, often relying on (electronic) devices to help remember critical information. Anecdotally, older adults (as well as younger adults, to a certain degree) will remark that although they have difficulty remembering information, "if it is important, then I will remember it"(...).