Background Modern slavery is a complex global health problem that includes forced labor exploitation. An ecological systems perspective is needed to understand how contextual upstream and midstream factors contribute to labor exploitation, and how disruptive societal challenges, such as infectious disease pandemics, may exacerbate established pathways leading to exploitation. Accumulation of familial and societal risk factors likely heightens vulnerability; for instance, economic precarity for an individual interacts with poor livelihood options and lack of social welfare supports increasing their likelihood of accepting exploitative labor. However, few frameworks exist that account for the accumulation of and interdependence between risk factors at different levels and across contexts. Objective Using an ecological systems framework, we review literature on the pathways leading to labor exploitation, with the aim of developing a conceptual model grounded in existing research. Next, we discuss how pathways in this conceptual model are likely exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This conceptual model can guide future research to detect modifiable factors and strategic points of intervention. Methods A critical review of research articles and gray literature was performed with a primary focus on sub-Saharan Africa. The review utilized various scholarly databases to identify perspectives from multiple disciplines and to more fully account for complex processes linked to labor exploitation. Results A conceptual model of these pathways was developed that emphasizes established determinants and risk factors for labor exploitation in sub-Saharan Africa. The model highlights how the COVID-19 pandemic may have exacerbated these pathways. Conclusions Future studies should carefully examine the direct and indirect pathways, accumulation of and interactions between factors, and specific external and personal stressors. Interdisciplinary research on multilevel interventions is needed to guide solutions to prevent the persistent problem of labor exploitation.
