Anti-inflammatory Activity of Saxifragin via Inhibition of NF-κB Involves Caspase-1 Activation

Saxifragin, the 5-glucoside of the flavonoid quercetin, is found in plants and insects. It has been reported that saxifragin has peroxynitrite-scavenging effects. However, the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effects of saxifragin has not yet been clearly identified. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of saxifragin in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and animal models of inflammation. We found that saxifragin suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E-2 (PGE(2)) in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages by suppressing the level of protein and mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cydooxygenase-2 (COX-2), respectively. Furthermore, saxifragin inhibited mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1 beta. We studied the inhibitory effects of saxifragin on the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B, activation of caspase-1, and phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Furthermore, pretreatment with saxifragin increased the survival rate of mice with LPS-induced septic death. Collectively, these findings suggest that saxifragin exerts anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting NF-kappa B, caspase-1, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation.