Explaining differences in ministerial menages a trois: multiple bargains in Belgium and Denmark

While special advisers play an important role in most Western governments, the research on the subject is limited. This article aims to explain variations in the menage a trois relationships between ministers, senior civil servants and special advisers in two different politico-administrative systems. The theoretical starting point is to conceptualize and explain such trilateral relationships as multiple Public Service Bargains. We find that the differences in Public Service Bargains generate differences in these menages a trois relationships, resulting in different types of functional differentiation as well as differences in the degree of cooperation vis-a-vis conflict. These differences are primarily the result of differences in the interests as well as formal, institutional rules and the competencies of the actors involved. The empirical data include documents as well as interviews with and questionnaires completed by senior civil servants. The countries compared are Belgium and Denmark.