Toilet training interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review

Background: Children on the autism spectrum can often reach independence in toileting at a later age than nonautistic children, which impacts their health outcomes, independence and social participation. This study aimed to systematically review evidence-based toilet training in-terventions for children on the autism spectrum, and assess the quality of existing evidence.Method: Guided by the PRISMA statement, a search of scholarly databases was conducted and the study characteristics, methodological quality and intervention components of included studies were examined.Results: This systematic review identified 26 studies that evaluated toilet training interventions for children on the autism spectrum. Results identified that while Azrin and Foxx's (1971) Rapid Toilet Training approach is most widely researched for children on the autism spectrum, inves-tigating the effects of current toilet training approaches is limited by small sample sizes, low-level study designs and variable methods of reporting outcomes.Conclusion: Greater consideration of parent-child communication, children's developmental and toileting skill level may facilitate development of toileting approaches that better meet the needs of children on the autism spectrum and their families.