Antigenic structure, function, and evolution of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein of human parainfluenza virus type 1

Twenty-two monoclonal antibodies directed to the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein of human parainfluenza virus type 1 (HPIV-1) were used in competition assays to create an antigenic map of neutralization sites. Eighty-seven clinical strains isolated over 35 years from multiple geographic regions were reacted in ELISA, hemagglutinin-inhibition, and microneutralization assays with these monoclonal antibodies. Together these assays revealed 21 epitopes on five nonoverlapping antigenic sites (I, III-VI) with a sixth (II) bridging site connecting sites I, III, and IV. Only 7 (33%) of these epitopes were conserved among all isolates. Previously described HPIV-1 genotypes were associated with the presence or absence of specific antigenic sites and evidence of probable immune selection within genotypes. Two sites were present on all isolates tested (III, V), and one (VI, genotype A) has not been found for 15 years. Forty hemagglutinin-neuraminidase nucleotide sequences were analyzed in terms of homology, structure, and evolution. These data may be useful in future epidemiologic, therapeutic, or vaccine-related work.