Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence: Beyond a Two-Dimensional Framework

Shneiderman's Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HCAI) framework suggests that high human control of automation is necessary to create reliable, safe, and trustworthy systems. The HCAI framework demonstrates that there is no need to sacrifice human control when incorporating higher levels of automation. We propose that Shneiderman's two-dimensional framework is static and unable to incorporate contextual factors such as the decision for a human-in-the-loop system, cognitive limitations of the user, and user characteristics. The HCAI framework, while an essential foundation, ought to reflect the flexibility of AI systems, while meeting individual differences and situational requirements.