The relative impact of forest patch and landscape attributes on black howler monkey populations in the fragmented Lacandona rainforest, Mexico

Land-use change is forcing many animal populations to inhabit forest patches in which different processes can threaten their survival. Some threatening processes are mainly related to forest patch characteristics, but others depend principally on the landscape spatial context. Thus, the impact of both patch and landscape spatial attributes needs to be assessed to have a better understanding of the habitat spatial attributes that constraint the maintenance of populations in fragmented landscapes. Here, we evaluated the relative effect of three patch-scale (i.e., patch size, shape, and isolation) and five landscape-scale metrics (i.e., forest cover, fragmentation, edge density, mean inter-patch isolation distance, and matrix permeability) on population composition and structure of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) in the Lacandona rainforest, Mexico. We measured the landscape-scale metrics at two spatial scales: within 100 and 500 ha landscapes. Our findings revealed that howler monkeys were more strongly affected by local-scale metrics. Smaller and more isolated forest patches showed a lower number of individuals but at higher densities. Population density also tended to be positively associated to matrices with higher proportion of secondary forests and arboreal crops (i.e. with greater permeability), most probably because these matrices can offer supplementary foods. The immature-to-female ratio also increased with matrix permeability, shape complexity, and edge density; habitat characteristics that can increase landscape connectivity and sources availability. The prevention of habitat loss and isolation, and the increment of matrix permeability are therefore needed for the conservation of this endangered Neotropical mammal.