The role of globalisation, de jure and de facto, on environmental performance: evidence from developing and developed countries

In the context of globalisation, is a country's level of development an obstacle to its environmental performance? The main objective of this research is to identify the role played in the environmental performance of countries with different levels of development, globalisation, and environmental regulation, by the three dimensions and two new measures of globalisation, de jure and de facto. This analysis was accomplished by assessing the environmental curve which relates economic growth to environmental degradation, known as the environmental Kuznets curve, for a sample of 32 developed and 26 developing economies from 1995 to 2017. It was found that developed countries produced an inverted U-shaped curve and that globalisation had a mostly beneficial effect on the environment. In contrast, developing economies produced a U-shaped curve and globalisation was generally harmful. Globalisation caused reductions of 0.88% and 0.85% in the environmental degradation of developed countries, and increases of 0.20% and 0.52% in developing ones. Political globalisation produced different effects for each measure in developed countries and had no effect in developing countries. Economic globalisation suggests the relocation of polluting industries from developed to developing countries. As there is currently very little literature on the new measures of globalisation, this study provides fresh insights for policymakers devising appropriate measures to achieve sustainability in both developed and developing countries.