Urbanization predicts infection risk by a protozoan parasite in non-migratory populations of monarch butterflies from the southern coastal US and Hawaii

Context Urbanization can affect the density of hosts, altering patterns of infection risk in wildlife. Most studies examining associations between urbanization and host-parasite interactions have focused on vertebrate wildlife that carry zoonotic pathogens, and less is known about responses of other host taxa, including insects. Objectives Here we ask whether urban development predicts infection by a protozoan, Ophyrocystis elektroscirrha, in three populations of monarchs (Danaus plexippus): migratory monarchs in northeastern U.S., non-migratory monarchs in southeastern coastal U.S., and non-migratory monarchs in Hawaii. Methods We used impervious surface and developed land cover classes from the National Land Cover Database to derive proportional measures of urban development and an index of land cover aggregation at two spatial scales. Parasite data were from previous field sampling (Hawaii) and a citizen science project focused on monarch infection in North America. Results Proportional measures of urban development predicted greater infection prevalence for non-migratory monarchs sampled in the southern coastal U.S. and Hawaii, but not in the northern U.S. Aggregations of low intensity development, dominated by single-family housing, predicted greater infection prevalence in monarchs from the northern and southern coastal U.S. populations, but predicted lower infection prevalence in Hawaii. Conclusions Because natural habitats have been reduced by land-use change, plantings for monarchs in residential areas and urban gardens has become popular among the public. Mechanisms that underlie higher infection prevalence in urban landscapes remain unknown. Further monitoring and experimental studies are needed to inform strategies for habitat management to lower infection risk for monarchs.