Over the past 3 decades, the study of various mechanisms involved in maize grain yield (GY) formation and its relationship with nitrogen (N) uptake dynamics has been increasingly acknowledged in the scientific literature. However, few studies have combined investigations of GY response to N fertilizer with detailed physiologically based analyses of plant N dynamics such as N uptake quantities, timing, and (or) partitioning - and the complex interactions of those with specific genotypes (G), management practices (M), and (or) production environments (E). Limited reporting of both N and yield dynamics at plant-component, individual-plant, and community levels has contributed to a considerable knowledge gap as to whether the physiological mechanisms that govern maize plant N dynamics and their relationship with GY formation have changed with time. We therefore undertook a comprehensive review to discern trends in physiological aspects of maize response to changing plant densities and fertilizer N rates (M components) under the umbrella of evolving G x E interactions. We reviewed 100 published and unpublished papers based on field experiments which consistently reported total plant N uptake at maturity and maize GY (frequently among other physiological variables). Our analyses were limited nearly exclusively to experiments involving hybrid (as distinct from inbred) response to M input levels where plant density data was available. Dissection of the complex interactions among years, plant densities and N rates began with division of treatment mean data (close to similar to 3000 individual points) into two time periods defined by year(s) of the original research: (i) studies from 1940 to 1990 - "Old Era" and, (ii) studies from 1991 to 2011 - "New Era". For the Old Era, maize GY averaged 7.2 Mg ha(-1) at a mean plant density of 5.6 pl m(-2) with a total plant N uptake of 152 kg N ha(-1), a grain harvest index (HI) of 48% and N harvest index (NHI) of 63%. For the New Era, maize GY averaged 9.0 Mg ha(-1) at a mean plant density of 7.1 pl m(-2), total plant N uptake of 170 kg N ha(-1), a grain HI of 50% and a NHI of 64%. The most striking findings in terms of overall GY and plant N uptake were: (1) on a per-unit-area basis, both potential GY and NIE (GY/N uptake) increased from Old to New Era at comparable N uptake levels, and (2) on a per-plant basis, total plant N uptake at maturity had not changed between Eras despite increased plant density in the New Era genotypes. Other important findings in terms of plant growth and component partitioning responses to N were (i) a consistently strong dependency between dry matter and N allocation to the ear organ in both Eras; (ii) higher total plant biomass (BM) accumulation and N uptake, on an absolute basis, during the post-silking period with New Era genotypes accompanied by relatively smaller changes in HI and NHI; (iii) a strong correlation between plant N uptake at silking time and per-plant GY and its components in both Eras: (iv) New Era (56.0 kg GY grain kg(-1) N) was primarily associated with reduced grain %N, and to a minor degree with NHI gains; and (v) New Era genotypes showed higher tolerance to N deficiency stress (higher GY when no N fertilizer was applied), and larger GY response per unit of N applied, relative to Old Era hybrids. This improved understanding of the physiological factors underlying progress in maize yield response to N over time, within the context of changing G x E x M factors, serves to help guide maize programs focused on achieving further improvements in N use efficiency. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
