HCH and lindane contaminated sites: European and global need for a permanent solution for a long-time neglected issue

During the last 70 years 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) has been one of the most extensively used pesticides. Only the gamma-isomer has insecticidal properties. For the marketing of gamma-HCH (lindane) the other 85% HCH isomers which are formed as by-products during HCH production had to be separated and became finally hazardous waste. For each tonne of lindane 8-12 tonnes of waste HCH isomers were produced and production of the approximately 600,000 t of lindane has therefore generated 4.8 to 7.2 million tonnes of HCH/POPs waste. These waste isomers were mostly buried in uncontrolled dumps at many sites around the world. The stockpiles and the large contaminated sites can be categorized as "mega-sites". Countries with HCH legacy problems include Albania, Argentina, Austria, Azerbaijan, Brazil, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Macedonia, Nigeria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, The Netherlands, UK, Ukraine and the USA. As lindane and alpha- and beta-HCH have been listed as POPs in the Stockholm Convention since August 2010, the problem of stockpiles of HCH waste is now documented and globally acknowledged. This article describes briefly the legacy of HCH and lindane that has been created. Three of the mega-sites are being discussed and demonstrate the increase in pollution footprint over time. Recent developments in the EU (including the Sabinanigo project in Aragon/Spain) and on a global level are presented. A short overview is given on lack of activities and on actions of countries within their obligations as Parties of the Stockholm Convention. Furthermore, current country activities supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the "financing mechanism" of the convention, are listed. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are formulated that will contribute to the solution of this problem over the next 25 years. (C) 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.