Hippocampus comes is presently exploited at significant rates in the central portion of - and possibly throughout - its range. The species is traded in dried form for traditional medicine and alive for the aquarium trade. Here we provide the most current life history, abundance and distribution information available for H. comes. These data should be helpful to researchers, and to management agencies in countries signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), tasked to implement strategies ensuring that trade is not detrimental to wild populations of H. comes (listed on Appendix II). Common names: (aspecific to H. comes, bincludes H. comes and possibly other local species): aTiger tail seahorse (Eng), bKuda laut, bUndok undok (Bahasa) (C. Kuang, pers. comm.), aKabayo-(kabayo) sa gasang/bdagat (Cebuano), bKabayo sa dagat (Tagalog), bKuro-kabayo (Waráy Waráy), bUndok undok (Tausug) (M. Pajaro, pers. comm.), aMa Num Hang Plong (Thai) (R. Karuwancharoen, pers. comm.), bCa ngua Den (Vietnamese) (T. Ky, pers. comm.). Conservation status: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: VU A2cd (2001), a precautionary listing inferring overall numerical declines of 30-50%. Listed on CITES Appendix II in May 2004. Identification: Adults are commonly black or brown with yellow saddle shapes on their dorsal surface and yellow stripes on the tail. May have mottled patterns on body and fine white lines radiating from the eyes. Trunk rings: 11, tail rings: modally 35-36 (range 34-37), head length: snout length ratio 2.2 (1.9-2.5), dorsal fin rays: 18 (17-19) pectoral fin rays: 17 (16-19). Distinguished from similarly sized sympatric congeners H. spinosissimus (Hs) and H. kuda (Hk) by 2 cheek spines (Hs: 1 or 2, Hk: 1, rounded), a low coronet with 5 knobs (Hs: raised with 4-5 points, Hk: rounded, turned back, may have broad flanges), and a prominent nose spine (Hs & Hk: low or none) (Lourie et al. 2004). Distribution: Wild H. comes are confirmed from Indonesia (south Sumatra, south Kalimantan), Malaysia (Johor, Penang), Singapore, Thailand (west coast) and Viet Nam (Khan Hoa) and the Philippines (Lourie et al. 2004, S. Lourie, unpublished data). Greatest abundances are thought to occur in the central Philippines, although the species is widely distributed in the Philippines from the provinces of Bohol, Cebu, Eastern Samar, Iloilo, Leyte, Masbate, Northern Samar, Quezon, Samar, Sorsogon, Surigao Del Norte and Zambales (A. Maypa, unpublished data., M. Pajaro, pers. comm., Perante et al. 2002). Animals are rarely reported from Palawan province (A. Vincent, pers. comm., M. Pajaro, pers. comm.). Abundance: (Philippines): (A) Fisheries independent data (i) from marine sanctuaries (no-take fishing zones), show mean densities from 0.002 (S. Morgan, unpublished data) to 0.019 individuals m2 (Perante et al. 2002), (ii) in fishing grounds, adult densities range from 0 to 0.015 ind. m-2 (S. Morgan, unpublished data) where rapid assessments show mean densities of 0.0013 ind. m-2 (A. Maypa, unpublished data). (B) Fisheries dependent catch per unit effort data indicate higher abundances from March-May when the proportion of juveniles increases (Perante et al. 1998). Fishers in Bohol report historical (1969) densities of up to 20 ind. m-2 in areas of aggregation (Perante et al. 2002). Abundances outside the Philippines remain unknown. Habitat and ecology: Inhabits shallow waters ranging from the low tide line to 10 m; deepest record at 20 m (Kuiter 2000, Lourie et al. 2004). Adults are found mainly in reef habitat dominated by stony/hard corals (Porites spp., Montipora spp., Pocillopora spp.) and sponges (Clathria spp., Callyspongia spp.), which are used as holdfasts. Found in seagrass beds where some coral substrate is present (S. Morgan, unpublished data). Young from 25 mm (settlement)-100 mm curved standard length (SLc, measured laterally, from the tip of the snout to the midpoint of the cleithral ring, down the curved length of the trunk to the tip of the tail) inhabit reef-flat macroalgal beds (S. Morgan, unpublished data). In coral reefs, adults are within or under structure by day, rising up to grasp holdfasts at night (Perante et al. 2002); pairs apparently come together at dusk and separate at dawn. Hippocampus comes feeds in a manner similar to other seahorse species, ambushing prey such as amphipods, copepods, caridean and mysid shrimps (Teixeira & Musick 2001, Woods 2002) by suction-feeding (Muller & Osse 1984). Reproduction: Forms stable pairs for at least one reproductive season. The longest recorded partnership lasted 21 months of in situ monitoring (n=1 of n=13 studied pairs) and may have endured longer (Perante et al. 2002). Reproduction is thought to take place every 14-21 days where eggs, 1.4 mm in diameter (Vincent 1990), are transferred from the female to the male. As in all seahorses, fertilization takes place within the male's pouch (Linton & Soloff 1964). Mean broods of 388 ± 18 (standard error, n=91) young are born with a mean SLc of 9-10 mm (Lourie et al. 2004). Mating behaviour typical of other seahorse species, including promenading and partnered revolution around structure (Vincent 1995), has been observed ex situ (S. Morgan, unpublished data). Size at 50% maturity, based on the presence of a mature pouch in males, is 96 mm SLc (78 mm Ht (height, measured laterally from the top of the coronet to the tip of the outstretched tail)), whereas the smallest male confirmed to have carried young measured 105 mm SLc (87 mm Ht). Data collected throughout multiple years indicates that the proportion of males that are pregnant increases with size, reaching an asymptotic maximum of 90% pregnant at sizes >204 mm SLc (170 mm Ht). The point on this curve at which 45% of males are pregnant is 122 mm SLc (100 mm Ht) (L. Brady, unpublished data). The species is thought to live 2.6-3.7 years and reach a theoretical asymptotic SLc of 264 mm1. Threats: (A) Overfishing: In the Philippines, populations are targeted by breath-hold fishers and compressor divers for medicinal and aquarium trade uses (Vincent 1996). The following declines in CPUE (catch per fishing hour) have been estimated in the central Philippines, where the species is abundant relative to other areas: Bohol 67% declines in lantern fishing catch between 1980 and 2000 (n=23 interviewees), Eastern Samar, 93% declines in lantern fishing between 1980 and 2000 (n=24); Surigao del Norte, 100% declines in beach seining catch between ca. 1975 and present (n=14) (A. Maypa, unpublished data). (B) Incidental Catch: H. comes is taken incidentally in illegal gears such as Danish seines and small trawls that target shrimp, prawn and pelagic fishes. Legal gears such as push nets, crab traps, gill nets and enclosure pens also take H. comes (M. Pajaro, unpublished data). (C) Habitat Damage: Destructive blast- and cyanide-fishing occur throughout the species' range, as does coral damage, siltation and sewage pollution (Gomez 1997). Synergistic and depensatory effects of (A)-(C) are unknown, as are the effects of global climate change. (D). Management Capacity: Minimal resources for management and considerable human dependence on marine resources presently hinder effective stewardship (Green et al. 2003). Threats outside the Philippines remain unknown, but trade volumes relative to known abundances suggest that similar pressures exist elsewhere. Conservation action: Listed with all seahorse species (genus Hippocampus) on CITES Appendix II, implemented on 15 May 2004. The 167 signatory Parties (countries) must certify, at the national level, that seahorse exports are not detrimental to wild populations and were legally acquired. In the Philippines, the domestic Fisheries Code has been interpreted as banning collection of species listed on all CITES Appendices, despite the intended sustainable use provisions of Appendix II. In Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand, no policy identifies species-level protection for H. comes, although de facto security may be offered through fisheries and marine park legislation. Conservation Recommendations: (1) Document and further research the species' ecology, life history and distribution, as needed for management. (2) Assess the relative impact of targeted catch vs. bycatch. (3) Protect and rehabilitate the species' habitat, using marine protected areas and other tools. (4) Work with stakeholders in the aquarium, curiosity and traditional medicine trades, to promote sustainable use and to initiate market certification. (5) Promote national management required by CITES, based on best practices and current information. (6) Quantify wild populations and contextualize in situ abundance relative to international trade volumes (live and dried). (7) Improve capacity to trade sustainably (e.g. species specifc import/export records, customs agents with species identification skills, measurement tools, law reform). © Springer 2006.
