Surface-dependent cytotoxicity on bacteria as a model for environmental stress of halloysite nanotubes

This study examined the cytotoxicity of halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) by investigating physiological responses of Escherichia coli, from cell growth to protein expression. Surfaces of HNTs were modified by amine functionalization (NH2-HNTs) or bovine serum albumin (BSA) coating and their cytotoxicity levels were compared with that of non-modified HNTs (Bare-HNTs). Bare- and NH2-HNTs exhibited accelerated cell death rates at >= 0.5 mg/ml of HNTs. It was also found that concentration as low as 0.01 mg/ml of HNTs exerted significant toxic effects on the bacterial cells. Cellular viability, metabolic activity, and DNA replication all decreased with increasing concentrations of Bare- and NH2-HNTs. In contrast, 0.01 mg/ml of BSA-coated HNTs (BSA-HNTs) coated showed no evidence of cytotoxicity. Even at concentrations <= 0.1 mg/ml, the cytocompatibility of BSA-HNTs was significantly better than those of Bare- and NH2-HNTs, which was confirmed by the observation of (i) the same or similar levels of cell proliferation and cell viability to the control, and (ii) higher levels of metabolic activity and plasmid DNA replication than those of Bare- and NH2-HNTs. In addition, higher ranaspumin-2 protein yield was observed from bacterial culture supplemented with BSA-HNTs (100, 83, and 80 % of yield at 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 mg/ml, respectively, relative to the control). This work showed that the increase of bacterial cytotoxicity of HNTs correlated well with elevating HNT concentration and that surface modification of HNTs with amine functional group and BSA coating was an effective strategy to reduce cytotoxicity up to 0.1 mg/ml of HNTs.