Gender Representation in Japan's National and International Diplomacy

How do we account for the discrepancy between the number of Japanese women serving in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) and the number in United Nations (UN) organisations? This article identifies where women and men are located in both national and international diplomacy. I argue that in ministries of foreign affairs around the world, institutional rules and norms account for the low numbers of women in these organisations. This research makes a new contribution to the literature by demonstrating that institutional rules and norms at the UN provide many opportunities for Japanese women to engage in diplomatic work, in contrast to national MFAs where norms and rules tend to circumscribe women's participation. I argue that women choose to seek out these opportunities to fulfil their goals. Thus, this article investigates women's agency in pursuing careers in international affairs as well as the effect of institutional rules and norms.