Psychological aspects of chemical defense and warfare

Concerns about chemical, biological, or radiation (CBR) weapons and their potential for warfare can be very stressful. Such concerns subject people to unfamiliar threats in highly ambiguous situations, in which people feel they may be wronged or they are helpless. Maladaptive psychological overreactions or underreactions may result. Such reactions to chemical warfare are illustrated with experiences from World War I, the 1991 Persian Gulf War, and a 1995 terrorist attack in the Tokyo subway. General principles of psychology suggest strategies and tactics for training and materiel developments that should enhance military performance and reduce maladaptive stress in CBR threat situations. Some of these practices may be relevant to nonmilitary law enforcement and relief agencies that manage CBR threats.