Police civil liability and the First Amendment: Retaliation against citizens who criticize and challenge the police

This article explores Section 1983 civil liability against police officers who retaliate against citizens exercising their First Amendment rights. The retaliation cases are categorized into three groups, using the standard developed by the United State Supreme Court in Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle (1977). The article then identifies three defenses successfully used by police officers, and concludes that officers must develop skills in anger management and interpersonal communication, so when confronted with verbal challenges, they can de-escalate the situation without risking First Amendment liability.