Black reefs: iron-induced phase shifts on coral reefs

被引:66
作者
Kelly, Linda Wegley [1 ]
Barott, Katie L. [1 ]
Dinsdale, Elizabeth [1 ]
Friedlander, Alan M. [2 ]
Nosrat, Bahador [1 ]
Obura, David [3 ]
Sala, Enric [4 ]
Sandin, Stuart A. [5 ]
Smith, Jennifer E. [5 ]
Vermeij, Mark J. A. [6 ,7 ]
Williams, Gareth J. [5 ]
Willner, Dana [8 ]
Rohwer, Forest [1 ]
机构
[1] San Diego State Univ, Dept Biol, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182 USA
[2] Univ Hawaii, Dept Zool, Hawaii Cooperat Fishery Res Unit, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA
[3] CORDIO E Africa, Mombasa, Kenya
[4] Natl Geog Soc, Washington, DC USA
[5] Univ Calif San Diego, Scripps Inst Oceanog, Ctr Marine Biodivers & Conservat, La Jolla, CA 92093 USA
[6] Carmabi Fdn, Curacao, Neth Antilles
[7] Univ Amsterdam, Inst Biodivers & Ecosyst Dynam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
[8] Univ Queensland, Australian Ctr Ecogen, St Lucia, Qld, Australia
基金
美国国家科学基金会;
关键词
coral reef; iron; metagenomics; microbes; phase shift; shipwreck; ORGANIC-MATTER RELEASE; PRIMARY PRODUCERS; STABLE STATES; BASE-LINES; PACIFIC; OCEAN; COMPLEXATION; COMMUNITIES; ECOLOGY; ALGAE;
D O I
10.1038/ismej.2011.114
中图分类号
Q14 [生态学(生物生态学)];
学科分类号
071012 ; 0713 ;
摘要
The Line Islands are calcium carbonate coral reef platforms located in iron-poor regions of the central Pacific. Natural terrestrial run-off of iron is non-existent and aerial deposition is extremely low. However, a number of ship groundings have occurred on these atolls. The reefs surrounding the shipwreck debris are characterized by high benthic cover of turf algae, macroalgae, cyanobacterial mats and corallimorphs, as well as particulate-laden, cloudy water. These sites also have very low coral and crustose coralline algal cover and are call black reefs because of the dark-colored benthic community and reduced clarity of the overlying water column. Here we use a combination of benthic surveys, chemistry, metagenomics and microcosms to investigate if and how shipwrecks initiate and maintain black reefs. Comparative surveys show that the live coral cover was reduced from 40 to 60% to <10% on black reefs on Millennium, Tabuaeran and Kingman. These three sites are relatively large (>0.75 km(2)). The phase shift occurs rapidly; the Kingman black reef formed within 3 years of the ship grounding. Iron concentrations in algae tissue from the Millennium black reef site were six times higher than in algae collected from reference sites. Metagenomic sequencing of the Millennium Atoll black reef-associated microbial community was enriched in iron-associated virulence genes and known pathogens. Microcosm experiments showed that corals were killed by black reef rubble through microbial activity. Together these results demonstrate that shipwrecks and their associated iron pose significant threats to coral reefs in iron-limited regions. The ISME Journal (2012) 6, 638-649; doi: 10.1038/ismej.2011.114; published online 1 September 2011
引用
收藏
页码:638 / 649
页数:12
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