SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and their neutralizing capacity against live virus in human milk after COVID-19 infection and vaccination: prospective cohort studies

Background: There is limited understanding of the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection and vaccination type and interval on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) human milk antibodies and their neutralizing capacity. Objectives: These cohort studies aimed to determine the presence of antibodies and live virus neutralizing capacity in milk from females infected with COVID-19, unexposed milk bank donors, and vaccinated females and examine impacts of vaccine interval and type. Methods: Milk was collected from participants infected with COVID-19 during pregnancy or lactation (Cohort -1) and milk bank donors (Cohort -2) from March 2020-July 2021 at 3 sequential 4 -wk intervals and COVID-19 vaccinated participants with varying dose intervals (Cohort -3) (January-October 2021). Cohort -1 and Cohort -3 were recruited from Sinai Health (patients) and through social media. Cohort -2 included Ontario Milk Bank donors. Milk was examined for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and live virus neutralization. Results: Of females with COVID-19, 53% (Cohort -1, n = 55) had anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgA antibodies in >= 1 milk sample. IgA+ samples (40%) were more likely neutralizing than IgA- samples (odds ratio [OR]: 2.18; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.03, 4.60; P = 0.04); however, 25% of IgA- samples were neutralizing. Both IgA positivity and neutralization decreased similar to 6 mo after symptom onset (0-100 compared with 201+ d: IgA OR: 14.30; 95% CI: 1.08, 189.89; P = 0.04; neutralizing OR: 4.30; 95% CI: 1.55, 11.89; P = 0.005). Among milk bank donors (Cohort -2, n = 373), 4.3% had IgA antibodies; 23% of IgA+ samples were neutralizing. Vaccination (Cohort -3, n = 60) with mRNA-1273 and shorter vaccine intervals (3 to <6 wk) resulted in higher IgA and IgG than BNT162b2 (P < 0.04) and longer intervals (6 to <16 wk) (P <= 0.02), respectively. Neutralizing capacity increased postvaccination (P = 0.04) but was not associated with antibody positivity. Conclusions: SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination (type and interval) impacted milk antibodies; however, antibody presence did not consistently predict live virus neutralization. Although human milk is unequivocally the best way to nourish infants, guidance on protection to infants following maternal infection/vaccination may require more nuanced messaging.