The dynamic relationships between landscape structure and ecosystem services: An empirical analysis from the Wuhan metropolitan area, China

Environmental managers have been striving to optimize landscape structure to achieve a sustained supply of ecosystem services (ESs). However, we still lack a full understanding of the relationships between landscape structure and ESs due to the absence of thorough investigations on the variability of these relationships in space and time. To fill this critical gap, we assessed landscape structure alongside four important ESs (agricultural production (AP), carbon sequestration (CS), soil conservation (SC), and water retention (WR)) in the Wuhan metropolitan area (WMA), and then analyzed the spatiotemporal impacts of landscape structure on ESs from 2000 to 2020 using Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression. The results show only AP maintained a stable growth trend over the past two decades, while the other ESs fluctuated considerably with a noticeable decline in SC and WR. The importance of landscape structure in influencing ESs varies by time and place, depending on the local landscape composition and configuration. In general, landscape composition has a stronger and less temporally stable impact on ESs compared to configuration. Furthermore, increases in land-scape diversity, as measured through Shannon's diversity index, and the percentage of woodlands were found to contribute to the simultaneous benefits of multiple ESs, but in most cases the effects of landscape structure on different ESs were different or even opposite, suggesting that trade-offs are critical in landscape management. The findings highlight the complex response of ESs to dramatically changing landscapes in the WMA and can guide decision-makers in precise spatial arrangement and temporal adjustments to improve current landscape management.