Late-season nitrogen application increases grain protein concentration and is neutral for yield in wheat. A global meta-analysis

Context: Late-season nitrogen (N) application has been proposed to boost grain yield and grain protein con-centration (GPC) in cereals; however, its effects on bread and durum wheat have been inconsistent in field experiments. Objectives: We performed a meta-analysis to (i) assess the effect of N applications to wheat after flag leaf visible (GS 37) on grain yield and GPC; and to assess the variation in these responses with (ii) N fertiliser management, (iii) environmental factors, and (iv) physiological traits. Methods: We searched 'Agronomy Journal', 'Crop Science', 'European Journal of Agronomy', and 'Field Crops Research' for articles published between 1980 and 2021 that allowed for a direct comparison of wheat yield and GPC between N application after GS 37 to an otherwise equally managed crop that received basal N fertilisation. We also collected other traits such as stover biomass and N uptake at plant maturity, and dough rheological properties, when available. The search resulted in 38 articles that, in addition to one unpublished trial from our group, evaluated 542 pairwise comparisons in 127 environments. Results: Across studies, grain yield ranged from 1.15 to 10.63 Mg ha(- 1) and showed a negative relation with GPC, which ranged from 65 to 189 g kg(- 1). Late-season N fertilisation was consistently neutral for grain yield (I-2, proportion of the overall variance due to variation in real effects rather than chance, 26.2 %) and increased GPC with a pooled estimate of 3.96 %. The response of GPC was heterogeneous (I-2 = 84 %), suggesting the need for exploration of potential moderators of the response. Meta-regression suggested that increasing the proportion of late N relative to the total available N positively associated to increases in GPC, and the residuals of this analysis suggested that later applications increased GPC response, with no effect of N fertiliser source or placement. Environments with low temperature, high photothermal quotient, and long duration of the critical period associated with greater GPC response to late-season N applications. The relative response of GPC to late fertil-isation correlated with the relative response of both stover N uptake and nitrogen concentration in stover at maturity, but not with stover biomass at maturity. Alveogram index and dough extensibility increased when late -season N increased GPC. Conclusions: Enhancing GPC through late N applications should consider associations between management, environmental, and physiological factors. Implications: Future research should focus on forecasting GPC response to late N, based on GPC response drivers identified in the current research.